Increase in Insurance Rates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Increase in Insurance Rates - Essay Example As result the rate directly relates to the premium paid. One factor that causes insurance rates to the increase is the occurrences of particular risks. For instance, an increase ion the occurrences of auto accidents in a particular region ill normally lead to the increase of the premium charged for motor cover. Several instances have been evidenced where the prevalence of a particular risk has led to insurance firms charging higher interest rates for such risks. Other insurers have been noticed to shun covering such risks. Another factor that has seen insurance rates go up is the moral hazard among the insured. This is the situation where the insured party takes no responsibility to prevent the occurrence of risks (G, 1960). This normally arises from the gratification that â€Å"after all I am insured.† The person therefore takes no duty to prevent certain risks from occurring. This will in the long run, lead to an increase in the prevalence of some risks. As a result, insuran ce firms will progressively increase the rates so that the insured chuck out more in form of premiums. The increase in the uncertainties realized in some dimensions in life has made insurance firms take radical measures to ensure they can cope with such situations.

Calculate Young`s modulus Essay Example for Free

Calculate Young`s modulus Essay Thus of course meaning that factors that need to be kept constant must be identified and kept that way. In this scenario I will be isolating Force as my variable. Force is directly related to the load on the wire; only multiplied by the gravitational pull (approx. 9. 81) as the load is measured in Kg as it is a mass. From the equation we can see that a change in Force will indeed affect the extension of the wire, at this stage it is apparent to say that; Theoretically the larger the force the greater the extension according to the equation above, as it is the value that is being divided. Following this it is also imperative that both the Cross sectional area of the wire is indeed accurately measured, as well as remaining constant through out the experiment, as a change in this value would indeed effect the value for Tensile stress, and in turn the extension. The length of the wire must also remain consistent through out the experiment. This is because each unit of wire will stretch or elongate by a proportional amount to the load being applied to it. Thus changing the length of will increase or decrease the amount of units of wire that can be stretched, causing different readings to be measured. The wire will indeed elongate and extend no matter what the length, but for these experimental purposes it is best to be long as explained above to stand a greater chance of measuring it properly. The important thing is to set the length of wire you wish to work with and do not change it. B) Implementing Results, observations and description. Cross sectional diameter of wire Measurement number and degrees of rotation 1/mm 2/mm 3/mm 1/ Average   Calculation of Average wire diameter=Thus the average cross sectional area of the wire is Force = mass 9. 81 ms Table of readings Final length, attempt; Mass/g Mass/Kg Force/N Orig. L/M 1/M 2/M 3/M Mean Extensionnfortunately errors can easily occur in this experiment, the first way of minimizing the percentage error in the experiment is to identify the sources that could cause such a problem; these being. When measuring the extension there are 3 main sources of uncertainty. Meter rule Parallax error   Zero error I plan to minimize these by;   Careful choice of meter rule, as man are bent and warped   Fixing a head and eye position against something so that the parallax error is minimized as I will be looking at the ruler from exactly the same angle. Record results from 0. 0 M   If there is a zero error, take it away from the results. When measuring the weight of the mass the following sources could effect the results; Zero error on the scales Not allowing for the weight of the cradle Simply using the weight that is imprinted on the mass instead of weighting it. I will minimize these sources by selecting my masses carefully and weighing each one separately to find its exact weight, as well as double checking a pair of scales against each other by putting the same weight on both scales to see if there is a zero error. The final measurement source of error is the measurement of the diameter of the wire. This is typically a source of inaccuracy because the wire does vary in cross sectional area, because of the way it was made. This can be accommodated for by measuring the wire extremely accurately with the micrometer, and measuring the wire in three different areas of the length and taking two readings at each of the three points along the wire, twisting it 90 degrees at each point to allow for ovals etc. The average can then be taken and used in the calculations to give a better representation of the wire being used Diagram of ideal and misshapen wire. Observations for experiment conducted on the 14th of December 2002 * At approximately 0930 the equipment was set up and the working area was in suitable condition to go ahead with the experiment as planned. I had two main concerns whilst conducting the experiments, these were of measuring natures, the first of these being that, when measuring the wire with the micrometer it proved initially extremely hard to turn the wire 90 degrees, I quickly remedied this by sticking a label on the wire so that it was clear what angle the wire had to be turned.   The second was that of concerning minimization of the parallax error, this proved to be quite challenging, so we decided to look at the ruler twice each a couple of seconds apart and in what i8 thought was the same position to see if it was a fair test. This way through up different results so we deemed it necessary to have someone stand over the wire and not move until the experiment was finished to minimize this risk.   Another observation I made was that I didnt think we were measuring the extension accurately enough I felt that measuring it to 1mm was far to inaccurate as the extension as will be seen by the graphs was minimal, I will mention this point heavily in the Evaluating.   The equipment was packed away and the experiment was completed within the hour.   I observed a changing in mass or load on the wire and no change in any of the identified variables. C Analyzing Evidence and Drawing Conclusions. Force/N Area/M Sress/Nm (Pa) Length/M Extension/M Strain Youngs modulus 1 The stress was simple to calculate as it simply meant dividing the force by the area, as so; The strain is a simple ratio it involves dividing theextension by the length; Thus the youngs modulus can be found for every plotted point separately on the graph; this is done by dividing the stress by the strain. As I predicted earlier the material obeys hookes law and froms a straight line through the origin until the elastic limit is reached. As well as we can calculate the extension from the gradient of the graph because its equal to L / EA. When a material obeys Hookes law, then its force, extension graph is a straight line through the origin (see graph). This is only the case up to the proportional limit. The graph being a graph of force against extension, the area is the energy stored in the wire. As the equation of the graph is F=kx, the equation of the area is . From the graph we can say that as the load increases on the wire the extension also increases proportionally, up to a certain point known as the elastic limit, this is because it is obeying kooks law as described above, and for this material whilst under low load the strain is proportional to the stress.. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Electricity and Magnetism section.

Warfare and its Psychological Impact Essay -- War Psychology Disorders

Warfare and its Psychological Impact Warfare causes many people to suffer from psychological problems. Many times, these problems come in the form of mental illness. According to the DSM-VI, which is the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a mental disorder is "a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that's associated with current distress (a painful symptom) or disability (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly greater risk of suffering, death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. This syndrome or pattern mustn't be merely an expected, culturally sanctioned response such as grief over the death of a loved one. Whatever the cause, it must be considered a sign of a behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction."("Diseases") Mental disorders are diseases. However, according to the Director of the National Institute of Mental Health, mental disorders are treatable diseases. Mental illnesses have been proven to be illnesses of the brain. These illnesses can often be treated with medication and psychological therapy. Depression is the leading cause of disability in the world. Some believe that depression is a weakness in character, but it is a real disease with real symptoms. More people suffer from depression than heart disease. Mental illness is a serious disease. Mental disorders are serious problems with serious effects. In war there are three main groups affected by war: soldiers, non-combatants, and society. There are negative psychological consequences caused by war, both culturally and individually, these make war more costly than we realized previously. If we take these negati... ...nd there would be a lot less psychologically injured people in the US and Vietnam today. Our newfound resistance to war will prove to provide a psychologically healthy environment for not only us, but our children as well, for they are our treasure and our future. Our children are more important than any amount of oil or gold. It is our duty to create a positive environment for children in this world. Their well-being should be our first concern. They are not responsible for the conflict, but they suffer severely. They are particularly vulnerable. (Otunnu par 2) According to The Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict "there is no escaping the conclusion that combat, and the killing that lies at the heart of combat, is an extraordinarily traumatic and psychologically costly endeavor that profoundly impacts all who participate in it." (Grossman and Siddle par.2)

Bangladesh’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) Essay

Due to Bangladesh’s extreme vulnerability to climate related impacts, adaptation is necessary for the political and economic survival of the country (Ali, 1999; Sajjaduzzaman et al, 2005). Since developing countries have been historically less responsible for the emissions that cause climate change, it is the responsibility of developed countries to finance the cost of adaptation in addition to development aid commitments (Article 4.4 UNFCCC, 1992). To this end, the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides support for adaptation under a global governance system, and has made National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPA) a requirement for all Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in order to provide the space for participatory approaches and community-level inputs in adaptation policy-making (Ayers et al, 2009). Here, the rationale is that the impacts of climate change are experienced locally, so adaptation programs need to be formulated and implemented at the local level (Ayers 2011). The Least Developed Countries Expert Group (LEG) affirms that â€Å"†¦ early engagement of people at the grassroots level will be important in ensuring successful implementation of NAPA initiatives† (LEG, 2002:2). The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), together with the United Nations Development Program and the Global Environment Facility, has provided funding for its highest priority NAPA project: a $10.8 billion Coastal Afforestation project (20102013) which aims to reduce â€Å"†¦ climate  change hazards through coastal afforestation with community participation† in the coastal districts of Barguna and Patuakhali (Western Region), Chittagong (Eastern Region), Bhola, and Noakhali (Central Region) (Figure 1) (Ministry Of Environment and Forestry (MOEF, 2005:24). Bangladesh is  one of the first countries to implement a community-based adaptation (CBA) project as part of its NAPA, and intends on using this project as a template for other vulnerable regions in Bangladesh (MOEF, 2008). Before this project is used as a template, it is important to analyse its effectiveness. This report will explore the role of the UNFCCC’s NAPA scheme in supporting or hindering a participatory approach to adaptation in Bangladesh’s CBA coastal afforestation project. Specifically, the focus question will be whether the coastal afforestation project is effective in facilitating adaptation at the grassroots level. BACKGROUND The Bangladesh NAPA identifies coastal communities as being the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, and proposes 15 projects that would meet their â€Å"urgent and immediate adaptation needs† (MOEF, 2005:4). The vulnerability of coastal communities in Bangladesh is also emphasised in the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001). Coastal zones are the highest priority sector in the NAPA due to the importance of the economic resources being affected, the urgency, severity and certainty of severe climate change impacts, and because coastal areas comprise 32% of the countries land space, with over 35 million people living just 1m above sea level (Agrawala et al, 2003). Bangladesh’s flat deltaic topography with low elevation and its geographical location that sits at the intersection of three river basins puts it at risk of flooding and tidal inundation, droughts, tropical cyclones and storm surges (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). In addition, Bangladesh is exposed to impacts from the melting of the Indian and Himalayan glaciers (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). These factors combined mean that every area in Bangladesh is prone to four types of floods- flash floods, riverine floods, rain floods, and storm surge floods (Figure 2) (Mirza, 2002). Furthermore, all sectors and regions of  Bangladesh are vulnerable the impacts of climate change (Figure 3) (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). The sites for the coastal afforestation project were selected based on their extreme vulnerability to climate change impacts (MOEF 2008). METHODOLOGY Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social and economic systems in response to the impacts of climate change (IPCC, 2007). Whereas adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to the impacts of climate change- to moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or cope with the consequences, resilience goes further to include the degree the system is capable of selforganisation, and able to learn and adapt to changes (Folke, 2006; Jerneck and Olsen, 2008; Magis, 2010). For this reason, a resilience framework with the following criteria will be used to analyse the effectiveness of the coastal afforestation project: Diversity in adaptation approaches involving a mix of technological, ecosystem based, governance and behavioural adaptation approaches. Effective governance and institutions that are seen as legitimate are critical for delivering sustainable adaptation outcomes (Bahadur et al, 2013). This is because they can facilitate learning and â€Å"experiment in safe ways, monitor results, update assessments, and modify policy as new  knowledge is gained† (Carpenter et al, 2001:778). Preparedness and planning requires relevant and timely information, and integration with existing institutional processes (Bahadur et al, 2013). An acceptance of uncertainty and change at all scales- individual, organisational and systemic- to adjust adaptation actions to changing circumstances so that co-benefits can be realised and perverse outcomes avoided (Bahadur et al, 2013). The level of community involvement and ownership is essential as to ensuring projects reach the most vulnerable (Bahadur et al, 2013). This is a key factor in reducing vulnerability to climate change under CBA (Pouliotte et al, 2009). Mainstreaming climate change into development planning to achieve climate resilient development is necessary for reducing vulnerability to climate change (Bahadur et al, 2013:55). COMPARISON The NAPA project demonstrates systems thinking by a willingness to learn from past policy mistakes. The Forestry Department has adopted a more participatory approach to forest management due to criticisms that past projects resulted in overharvesting and overgrazing due to a lack of community ownership over coastal mangroves (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). Since the1980s, rising poverty and population growth combined with an  absence of land-use policies has resulted in a loss of over 40,000 ha of forests along the eastern and central coasts of Bangladesh due to clearing for agriculture, shrimp farming, salt pan and settlements (MOEF, 2008). The project document reviews these past issues and has put in place measures for livelihood diversification so that natural resources are not exploited (MOEF, 2008). The project aims to diversify livelihoods through its â€Å"triple f† model of â€Å"Forest, Fish, and Food†, which integrates aquaculture and food production within the afforested and reforested plantations so that community income sources are diversified (Sovacool et al, 2012). The FFF model currently focuses on drought and flood resistance fruit and vegetable crops. Through a combination of agriculture, fishing and producing palm oil the project has so far provided an income stream for 1,150 families and community training on nursery and plantation management to 12,200 coastal people (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). However, as one local states, â€Å"we have developed saline tolerant crop varieties but the concentration of salinity is going up. We cant keep on producing crops when land is flooded and water salty†¦ Adaptation has its limits† (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011: 860). Evidently, the FFF model fails to encourage a diversity of livelihood options, and thus equip locals with the adaptive capacity to adjust adaptation actions to changing circumstances. By contrast, an NGO in the village of Subarnabad- the Institute of Development Education for Advancement of Landless (IDEAL)- has implemented a CBA project that allows the community to choose their own livelihood options (Figure 5), thus giving them full ownership and providing a range of options so that they can adjust their income streams if circumstances change. The climate impacts emphasised by the NAPA project correlate with community responses recorded in an independent household survey in one of the target sites, the Noakhali village (Figure 4) (Ayers, 2011). However, the adaptation options listed by respondents focused on addressing systemic issues like lack of access to  government services and NGOs, high poverty rates, low social mobilisation, low literacy rates and insecure land tenure (Ayers, 2011). Coastal afforestation was never raised as a priority adaptation option (Ayers,  2011). The project has sponsored 6000ha of community-based mangrove plantations, 500ha of non-mangrove mount plantations, 220ha of dykes, 1000km of embankments, and building sea gates to prevent salt water intrusion into rivers (Sovacool et al, 2012). These initiatives reveal the project’s focus on reducing the physical exposure to climate change impacts (Ayers, 2011). However, respondents in Noakhali framed risk in terms of addressing development issues that cause vulnerabilities to climate change impacts in the first place (Ayers, 2011). One example is the project’s introduction of early warning information and disaster preparedness systems in 20 of the most vulnerable towns (MOEF, 2008). In discussions about the risks of cyclones and storms with fishermen in Noakhali, they revealed that information provision was not the problem- radios had already been provided by a local Red Crescent program, but financial pressure to pay back the loans meant that fisherman would ignore the bad weather warnings (Ayers, 2011). Therefore the preferable adaptation option here would be putting in place a better micro-credit system. This case illustrates the importance of addressing the underlying issues that expose vulnerable groups to climate change impacts. It also shows that a lack of coordination between government and existing institutions can waste funding and exacerbate vulnerabilities. Therefore, community involvement in identifying vulnerabilities and adaptation responses is essential to building resilience on the ground. DISCUSSION A lack of community involvement and ownership over the implementation of the project can be attributed to the NAPA preparation process. The process involved consultation with local level stakeholders- representatives from local government, local NGOs, farmers and women- through regional consultation workshops (Ayers, 2011). However, power dynamics within communities meant that politically powerful stakeholders dominated the discussions to the exclusion of less powerful stakeholders- basically, the most vulnerable were not involved in the NAPA preparation process (Ayers, 2011). Furthermore, the participation of local stakeholders focused on prioritising pre-identified adaptation options (Ayers, 2011). This ‘top down’ approach combined with the framing of ‘risks’ as climate  change impacts rather than vulnerabilities explains why the adaptation options in the NAPA conflict with those prioritised by the targeted communities (Ayers, 2011). This is due to a global framework of adaptation that â€Å"†¦ casts adaptation as a response to the ‘additional’ impacts of climate change†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ â€Å"rather than the factors that make people vulnerable to these changes (which are often closely connected to existing development needs and problems)† (Ayers, 2011:63). The LEG (2002) guidelines stress the importance of â€Å"bottom-up, participatory approaches† (2) to adaptation and the NAPA project emphasises â€Å"the participation of men and women at the grassroots- level†(MOEF, 2008:22), so what institutional approach is needed to meet these ends? Ayers et al (2009) suggest reframing the adaptation discourse under the UNFCCC in terms of vulnerability instead of impacts, as this would allow vulnerable communities to identify, prioritise and implement climate resilient development activities and thus operationalize CBA. CBA requires an engagement with local institutional structures-be it public, private or civil societyfrom the beginning of the NAPA development process- to ascertain which institutions or features of institutions are needed for climate resilient development in that particular context (Ayers et al, 2010).  In practise, this means more coordination between the government of Bangladesh and local institutions to develo p mechanisms for mainstreaming climate resilient development. Opportunities for collaboration already exist in Bangladesh, but need to be harnessed. For example, the NGO IDEAL has successfully implemented CBA in the South-Western village of Subarnabad by providing training and technical support as well as access to loans and a savings bank to adopt new livelihoods strategies of their choosing to suit their situation (Pouliotte, 2009) (Figure 5). In turn, this has had a mobilising effect on the community, which can be seen in the strategies being employed without the help of the NGO- by learning from neighbours and building networks (Pouliotte, 2009). The effect of this project in reducing vulnerabilities by diversifying livelihood options shows that climate change adaptation activities need to be built into community driven development programs. Another NGO in Bangladesh, The Arsenic Mitigation and Research Foundation (AMRF), has facilitated the establishment of ‘Village Committees’ made up of women in arsenic-affected  villages who collect 3 Dhakas from each resident per month and lobby local government for funding to not only operate and maintain the deep tube wells, but also encourage activities in other sectors like education, sanitation, and village infrastructure (Rammelt et al, 2011). These committees have the funding, lobbying power, and legitimacy to potentially carry out climate resilience development programs as well. A barrier for LDCs to mainstreaming climate change into development planning is the funding issue of ‘additionality’. This is why deepening community involvement through community-based organisations- in collaboration with government- is the institutional approach needed to carry out climate resilient development. CONCLUSION Although the NAPA project in Bangladesh reflects community perceptions on the impacts of climate change, vulnerable communities were given little opportunity to identify and address the underlying development issues that cause vulnerability to such impacts (Ayers, 2011). This exposes the problem with facilitating CBA within the confines of impacts-based adaptation policy-making under the UNFCCC. Therefore a new framework is needed that defines adaptation more broadly; that addresses the drivers of vulnerability, and recognises that â€Å"development is risk management†Ã‚  (Commission on Climate Change and Development, 2009: 9). APPENDIX Figure 1 Source: MOEF 2008:4 Figure 2 Source: Mirza et al, 2003:48 Figure 3 Source: Rawlani and Savacool, 2011:863 Figure 4 Source: Ayers, 2011:74 Figure 5 Source: Pouliotte et al, 2009:42 Reference list Ali, A (1999) Climate change impacts and adaptation assessment in Bangladesh, Climate Research, 12: 109-116 Agrawala, S, Ota, T, Ahmed, A.U, Smith, J, van Aalst, M (2003) Development and climate change in Bangladesh: focus on coastal flooding and the Sundarbans, OECD, Paris Available at: http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/21055658.pdf Accessed: 25 July, 2013 Agrawal, A (2008) The role of local institutions in adaptation to climate change, Social Development Department, World Bank, Washington, March Available at: http://www.icarus.info/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/agrawal- adaptation-institutions-livelihoods.pdf Accessed: 25 July, 2013 Ayers, J (2011) Resolving the adaptation paradox: exploring the potential for deliberative policy-making in Bangladesh, Global Environmental Politics, 11(1): 62-89 Ayers, J, Dodman, D (2010) Climate change adaptation and development: the state of the debate, Progress in Development Studies, 27 (6):161-168 Ayers, J, Huq, S (2009) Supporting adaptation through development: what role for ODA? Development Policy Review, 27 (6): 659-784 Bahadur, A.V, Ibrahim, M, Tanner, T (2013) Characterizing resilience: unpacking the concept for tackling climate change and development, Climate and Development, 5 (1):55-65 Commission on Climate Change and Development (2009) The human dimension of climate adaptation: the importance of local and institutional issues, April Available at: http://www.ccdcommission.org/Filer/report/HUMAN_DIMENSIONS.pdf Accessed: 26 July, 2013 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007b, Australia and New Zealand. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html Accessed: 15 July, 2013 IPCC (2001) The Science of Climate Change, Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change, Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml#. Ufpg2T89UN Accessed: 26 July, 2013 Folke, C (2006) Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses, Global Environmental Change, 16(3):253-267 Jerneck, A, Olsson, L (2008) Adaptation and the poor: development, resilience and transition, Climate Policy 8, 170-182 Magis, K (2010) Community resilience: an indicator of social sustainability, Society and Natural Resources, 23:401-416 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) (2005), National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), Bangladesh Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/ban01.pdf Accessed: 20 July, 2013 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2008) Community- based adaptation to climate change through costal afforestation in Bangladesh, Bangladesh Mirza, N.M.Q, (2002) Global warming and changes in the probability of occurrences of floods in Bangladesh and implications, Global Environment and Change, 12:127138 Pouliotte, J, Smit, B, Westerhoff, L (2009) Adaptation and development: livlihoods and climate change in Subarnabad, Bangladesh, Climate and Development, 1:31-46 Rammelt, C, Masud, Z.MD, Boes, J, Masud, F, Masud, A (2011) Beyond medical treatment, arsenic poisoning in rural Bangladesh, Social Medicine, 6(1): 22-30 Rawlani, A.K, Savacool, B.K (2011) Building responsiveness to climate change through community based adaptation in Bangladesh, Mitigation and Adaptation strategies for global change, 16:845-863 Sajjaduzzaman M.M, Koike, N (2005) Mangrove plantation destruction in Noakhali Coastal Forests in Bangladesh: a case study on causes, consequences, and model prescription to halt deforestation, International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 7 (5):732-734 Sovacool, B.K, D’Agostino, A.L, Meenawat, H, Rawlani, A (2012) Expert views of climate change adaptation in least developed Asia, Journal of Environmental Management, 97:78-88 Sovacool, B.K, D’Agostino,A.L, Rawlani, A, Meenawat, H (2012) Improving climate change adaptation in least developed Asia, Environmental Science and Policy, 21:112-125 UNFCCC/LEG (Least Developed Countries Expert Group) (2002) Annotated guidelines for the preparation of National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPA), Bonn, July Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/annguid_e.pdf Accessed: 25 July, 2013 UNFCCC(1992) The United Nations Convention on Climate Change Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf Accessed: 24 July 2013

Grand Theory Written Assignment Essay

Nursing theory gathers specific information regarding aspects of nursing and utilizes these findings to communicate and describe nursing phenomena. Theories provide a framework for nursing practice and processes. Grand nursing theories are broadest in scope and provide generalizations regarding nursing situations. Grand nursing theories consist of four schools of thought. Nursing theorists bring a unique definition, approach, and focus to these specific schools of thought. The first school of thought includes theories that reflect an image of nursing as meeting the needs of patients (Meleis, 2012). When a patient is unable to meet their individual needs it is the responsibility of the nurse to provide what is necessary in assisting the patient towards independence. Virginia Henderson was a needs theorist who categorized human needs into 14 components: breathing normally, eating and drinking adequately, eliminate body wastes, move and maintain desirable postures, sleep and rest, selec t suitable clothes, maintain homeostasis, personal hygiene, protect the integument, avoid environmental dangers and injury to others, communicate with others, worship according to faith, participate in recreation, learn and discover, and work in such a way there is a sense of accomplishment (www.currentnursing.com). Henderson defined nursing as assisting with these activities to help the individual achieve independence. A person’s ability to successfully perform activities of daily living is imperative to healing. Nurses can assist patients achieve this by identifying knowledge deficits and providing the person with knowledge to help restore wholeness. The next school of thought is interaction. These theories were conceived by those who viewed nursing â€Å"†¦as an interaction process with a focus on the development of a relationship between patients and nurses† (Meleis, 2012). Interaction theorists focus on illness as an experience and nurses must implement therapeutic processes to care for the patient. Imogene King was an interaction theorist that defined nursing as â€Å"†¦a process of action, reaction, and interaction whereby nurse and client share information about their perceptions of the nursing situation and agree on goals† (Meleis, 2012). King’s theory stated that the goal of nursing is to help individuals maintain their health and share meaningful interactions to achieve their goals (Meleis, 2012). The interaction school of thought is imperative because it empowers the patient to be an active and equal participant in their own health care. The third school of thought is outcomes. These theorists strived to restore stability and bring balance to the patient and their environment (Meleis, 2012). Myra Levine was an outcomes theorist the believed that nursing is a conservation of integrities and energy (Meleis, 2012). Levine also defined nursing as patient advocacy and individualizing patient needs with compassion and commitment (Meleis, 2012). These theorists believe that effective coping mechanisms can help the patient live harmoniously. The fourth and final school of thought is caring/becoming. These theories evolved from interaction theories but they are more expansive. â€Å"The process of care is defined as a process of becoming for both clients and nurses; however, transformation is only possible if each is open to it† (Meleis, 2012). Jean Watson believed the goal of nursing to be mental and spiritual growth for human beings, (nurses and clients), and finding meaning in experiences (Meleis, 2012). The caring theory focuses more on the nurse/patient relationship compared to the interaction theory. The grand theory school of thought that is most congruent with my nursing practice is the outcomes theory. I believe that every patient responds to health issues differently. I assess what they need, what their deficits are, and how I can enable their coping mechanisms. I work at a busy trauma center and we have emergency surgeries frequently. Many of these are suction dilatation and curettages. Each woman handles this differently. So I sense and assess what they need to have the best outcome possible. Some want to leave right away, some want to stay a while, some want to see their family and some don’t. It might not be the norm to keep one of these patients for three hours, but I will keep them until they are ready to leave. I believe in patient advocacy on an individualized basis. Please refer to Table 1. Grand Theorist Information for theorist comparison.